A Multi-Methodological Framework for Electric Vehicle Policy in Emerging Economies: Integrating Soft Systems Methodology, Innovation Diffusion Theory, Principal-Agent Theory, and Strategic Choice Approach through a Systematic Literature Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31098/ijmesh.v10i1.4356Keywords:
Soft Systems Methodology, Multi-Methodology Integration, Electric Vehicle Policy, Wicked Problems, Emerging Economies, Systematic Literature ReviewAbstract
Electric vehicle (EV) adoption in emerging economies is shaped by interacting technical, economic, institutional, and behavioral factors. In Indonesia, despite substantial fiscal and non-fiscal incentives, EV adoption remains below 1% of vehicle sales, reflecting persistent misalignment among government targets, industry capabilities, and consumer acceptance. Existing studies tend to analyze these challenges in isolation and rarely integrate behavioral and institutional dimensions within a single coherent framework suited to such "wicked" policy problems. This study is conceptual and methodological in nature. Through a systematic literature review (SLR) of 81 articles, supported by a System of Systems Methodologies (SOSM) analysis and refined by a pilot workshop with Indonesian experts, it develops an integrated problem-structuring framework. The review indicates that Problem Structuring Methods, particularly Soft Systems Methodology (SSM), remain underutilized in emerging-economy transport policy. On this basis, the study proposes a six-stage integration protocol that positions SSM as the methodological backbone, complemented by Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT), Principal-Agent Theory (PAT), and Strategic Choice Approach (SCA), spanning problem exploration, innovation analysis, incentive mapping, conceptual modeling, uncertainty management, and implementation strategy. The framework offers a structured way to combine interpretive, behavioral, institutional, and strategic perspectives while maintaining theoretical coherence. Its applicability is illustrated through an exploratory application to Indonesia's EV charging-infrastructure policy, with broader empirical validation identified as a priority for future research.
References
Abbasi, H. A., Johl, S. K., Shaari, Z. H., Moughal, W., & Mazhar, M. (2021). Consumer motivation to purchase electric vehicles in Malaysia. Energies, 14(22), 7412.
Ackermann, F., & Eden, C. (2011). Problem structuring methods 'in the dock': Arguing the case for Soft OR. European Journal of Operational Research, 219(3), 652-658.
Ackoff, R. L. (1979). The future of operational research is past. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 30(2), 93-104.
Adams, K. M., & Mun, J. H. (2005). The application of systems of systems methodologies to system-of-systems engineering. Systems Engineering, 8(4), 340-352.
Albakri, N., & Wood-Harper, T. (2025). Enhancing systems methodology with institutional analysis. Systems Practice and Action Research, 38(1), 45-62.
Ansell, C., & Gash, A. (2018). Collaborative platforms as a governance strategy. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 28(1), 16-32.
Antara. (2023). Electric vehicle sales and subsidy updates in Indonesia. Retrieved from https://en.antaranews.com
Aqmarina, S. N., Nurcahyo, R., Kristiningrum, E., Ma'aram, A., Farizal, & Rajabi, M. F. (2024). Consumer acceptance of electric vehicles in Indonesian metropolitan areas: Jakarta and Medan comparative study. Sustainability, 16(8), 3245.
Arora, S., & Singh, A. K. (2024). Multi-criteria decision analysis for electric vehicle adoption in emerging markets. Transportation Research Part D, 126, 104018.
Ashhurst, P., & Brown, T. (2024). Wicked problems in sustainability transitions: Lessons from electric mobility. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 50, 100782.
Assad, A. A., & Gass, S. I. (2011). Profiles in Operations Research: Pioneers and Innovators. Springer.
Bergek, A., Jacobsson, S., Carlsson, B., Lindmark, S., & Rickne, A. (2015). Analyzing the functional dynamics of technological innovation systems: A scheme of analysis. Research Policy, 37(3), 407-429.
Boumaiza, A., Sanchez, D. G., & Ayadi, M. (2018). Innovation diffusion in electric vehicle adoption: A multi-agent simulation approach. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 132, 15-28.
Cavaleri, S., Firestone, J. M., & Reed, F. (2005). Designing knowledge generating processes. Knowledge and Process Management, 12(2), 109-117.
Cerutti, O. M., Burnett, R. D., & Oren, T. I. (2015). Principal-agent relationships in technology transfer policies. Technology Transfer and Entrepreneurship, 2(1), 45-67.
Chang, H. J. (2012). Institutional frameworks for industrial policy: The role of state capacity in East Asian development. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 36(1), 155-172.
Checkland, P. (1981). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. John Wiley & Sons.
Checkland, P. (1999). Systems thinking, systems practice: Includes a 30-year retrospective. John Wiley & Sons.
Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action: A short definitive account of Soft Systems Methodology and its use for practitioners, teachers and students. Wiley.
Checkland, P., & Scholes, J. (1990). Soft Systems Methodology in Action. John Wiley & Sons.
Chhikara, R., Garg, C. P., Chandra, R., & Singh, S. (2021). Factors affecting adoption of electric vehicles in India: An exploratory study. Transportation Research Part D, 100, 103052.
Córdoba, J. R., & Farquharson, J. (2008). Soft systems methodology and data mining: A hybrid framework for enhancing organizational learning. Information Systems Management, 25(4), 330-340.
Costa, Á., Fernández-Ríos, A., Figueroa-García, J. C., & Barbosa-Santillán, L. I. (2018). Application of MCDM methods in electric vehicle charging infrastructure planning. Applied Sciences, 8(11), 2112.
Daviter, F. (2017). Coping, taming or solving: Alternative approaches to the governance of wicked problems. Policy Studies, 38(6), 571-588.
Dayal, R. (2019). Principal-agent relationships in environmental policy implementation. Environmental Policy and Governance, 29(3), 178-192.
Diller, C., & Oberding, C. (2017). Strategic Choice Approach in regional planning: Lessons from German practice. European Planning Studies, 25(9), 1562-1580.
España, J. M., Vega-Garita, V., Orozco-Coto, A., & Arguedas-Soto, R. (2024). Electric vehicle adoption barriers in Latin American emerging economies. Energy Policy, 185, 113954.
Fartash, K., Davoudi, S. M. M., Baklashova, T. A., Svechnikova, N. V., Nikolaeva, Y. V., Grimalskaya, S. A., & Beloborodova, A. V. (2023). The impact of technology acceptance model variables on customers' behavioral intention to use electric vehicles. Sustainability, 15(11), 8601.
Fischer, M., & Newig, J. (2016). Importance of actors and agency in sustainability transitions: A systematic exploration of the literature. Sustainability, 8(5), 476.
Fleck, A. (2024). Framing electric vehicle adoption as a wicked problem: Implications for policy design. Technology in Society, 76, 102453.
Flood, R. L., & Jackson, M. C. (1991). Creative Problem Solving: Total Systems Intervention. John Wiley & Sons.
Franco, L. A., & Montibeller, G. (2010). Facilitated modelling in operational research. European Journal of Operational Research, 205(3), 489-500.
Friend, J., & Hickling, A. (2005). Planning under pressure: The strategic choice approach (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Friend, J., & Hickling, A. (2012). Planning under pressure: The strategic choice approach. Routledge.
Geels, F. W., Sovacool, B. K., Schwanen, T., & Sorrell, S. (2018). Sociotechnical transitions for deep decarbonization. Science, 357(6357), 1242-1244.
Georgiou, I. (2013). Soft Systems Methodology in action: An examination of its use in practice. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 30(6), 665-681.
Georgiou, I. (2015). Thinking Through Systems Thinking. Routledge.
Ghavami, S. M. (2022). Agency theory applications in energy policy: A systematic review. Energy Policy, 160, 112673.
Gicha, B. M., Laswai, I. M., & Tesha, D. (2024). Electric vehicle adoption challenges in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 192, 114234.
Gokasar, I., Timurogullari, A., & Deveci, M. (2023). Electric vehicle charging station location selection using fuzzy MCDM methods. Sustainable Cities and Society, 90, 104390.
Goodeve, C. F. (1948). Operational research as a science. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 110(4), 377-385.
Habiburrahman, M., Nurcahyo, R., & Gabriel, D. S. (2025). System dynamics modeling for Indonesian electric vehicle policy scenarios. System Dynamics Review, 41(1), 25-45.
Hakam, D. F., Putra, I. G. N. B. A., & Sunarsih, S. (2024). Electric vehicle market penetration in Indonesia: Challenges and policy implications. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(2), 124-132.
Hall, R. I., & Hess, S. W. (1978). The relevance of operations research to management: A critique and a challenge. Operations Research, 26(3), 365-381.
Head, B. W. (2008). Wicked problems in public policy. Public Policy, 3(2), 101-118.
Head, B. W. (2019). Forty years of wicked problems literature: Forging closer links to policy studies. Policy and Society, 38(2), 180-197.
Head, B. W., & Alford, J. (2015). Wicked problems: Implications for public policy and management. Administration & Society, 47(6), 711-739.
Hoekstra, A., & Steinbuch, M. (2021). The lifetime CO2 emissions of electric vehicles. Applied Energy, 293, 116888.
Huang, L., Liu, S., & Yang, C. (2022). Principal-agent relationships in green public procurement: Evidence from China's electric vehicle policies. Journal of Public Procurement, 22(3), 245-267.
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2021). Net Zero by 2050: A roadmap for the global energy sector. Paris: IEA.
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). Global EV Outlook 2024: Catching up with climate ambitions. Paris: IEA.
Jackson, M. C. (1990). Beyond a system of systems methodologies. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 41(8), 657-668.
Jackson, M. C. (1993). Systems methodology for the management sciences. Plenum Press.
Jackson, M. C. (2003). Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers. John Wiley & Sons.
Jackson, M. C. (2019). Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity. John Wiley & Sons.
Jackson, M. C., & Keys, P. (1984). Towards a system of systems methodologies. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 35(6), 473-486.
Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360.
Kapoor, K. K., Dwivedi, Y. K., & Williams, M. D. (2011). Innovation adoption attributes: A review and synthesis of research findings. European Journal of Innovation Management, 17(3), 327-348.
Kivimaa, P., & Kern, F. (2016). Creative destruction or mere niche support? Innovation policy mixes for sustainability transitions. Research Policy, 45(1), 205-217.
Klitkou, A., Bolwig, S., Hansen, T., & Wessberg, N. (2015). The role of techno-economic networks in emerging pathways: The case of electric vehicle development in Denmark. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 27(4), 397-417.
Koppenjan, J., & Klijn, E. H. (2016). Governance Networks in the Public Sector. Routledge.
Krishnan, V. V., & Sreekumar, S. (2023). Push-pull-mooring framework for electric vehicle adoption: Evidence from Indian consumers. Transport Policy, 132, 15-29.
Laffont, J. J., & Martimort, D. (2002). The Theory of Incentives: The Principal-Agent Model. Princeton University Press.
Lami, I. M., & Todella, E. (2019). Strategic choice approach for complex policy decisions: The case of urban regeneration. Cities, 88, 73-84.
Lazuardy, A., Nurcahyo, R., Kristiningrum, E., Ma'aram, A., Farizal, Aqmarina, S. N., & Rajabi, M. F. (2024). Technological, Environmental, Economic, and Regulation Barriers to Electric Vehicle Adoption: Evidence from Indonesia. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 15(9), 422.
Liu, X., & Xiao, Y. (2018). Diffusion of electric vehicles in emerging markets: Challenges and policy implications. Energy Policy, 119, 473-481.
Lusiantoro, L., Yudoko, G., Samadhi, T. M. A. A., & Sutrisno, A. (2024). Supply chain challenges in Indonesian electric vehicle ecosystem: A stakeholder perspective. International Journal of Production Economics, 267, 109087.
Marino, A., & Marufuzzaman, M. (2020). Electric vehicle infrastructure planning using multi-criteria decision analysis. Transportation Research Part E, 142, 102063.
Matti, S., & Sandström, A. (2011). The rationale determining advocacy coalitions: Examining coordination networks and corresponding beliefs. Policy Studies Journal, 39(3), 385-410.
Mbatha, B. (2024). Cultural adaptation of innovation diffusion theory in emerging economies: Evidence from technology adoption studies. Technology in Society, 76, 102389.
Midgley, G. (2000). Systemic intervention: Philosophy, methodology, and practice. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Miller, C. (2015). The stages of EV adoption: An innovation diffusion perspective. Transportation Research Part F, 34, 22-38.
Mingers, J. (2000). The contribution of critical realism as an underpinning philosophy for OR/MS and systems. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 51(11), 1256-1270.
Mingers, J. (2001). Combining IS research methods: Towards a pluralist methodology. Information Systems Research, 12(3), 240-259.
Mingers, J. (2006). Realising Systems Thinking: Knowledge and Action in Management Science. Springer.
Mingers, J. (2011). Soft OR comes of age—but not everywhere! Omega, 39(6), 729-741.
Mingers, J., & Brocklesby, J. (1997). Multimethodology: Towards a framework for mixing methodologies. Omega, 25(5), 489-509.
Mingers, J., & Rosenhead, J. (2011). Introduction to the special issue: Teaching soft OR, problem structuring methods, and multimethodology. INFORMS Transactions on Education, 12(1), 1-3.
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. (2021). National Energy Policy 2021-2030. Jakarta: Government of Indonesia.
Monga, S., Ramakrishnan, S., & Krishnan, V. (2024). Multi-agent modeling of electric vehicle diffusion: Insights from behavioral economics. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 199, 123045.
Munthe, K. A., Simanjuntak, D. A., & Siahaan, A. P. U. (2024). Electric vehicle adoption barriers in Medan metropolitan area: A consumer perspective. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 23, 101024.
Murzakhmetov, S., Castillo-Villar, K. K., & Adibi, A. (2020). System dynamics approach to electric vehicle adoption modeling. Journal of Cleaner Production, 276, 124138.
Murtiningrum, T., Michaux, S., & Siahaan, D. (2022). Indonesia's electric vehicle policy: Market readiness and infrastructure challenges. Energy Policy, 168, 113123.
Nugraha, A. T., Osman, N. H., & Mariun, N. (2021). Battery recycling challenges for Indonesian electric vehicle program. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 151, 111574.
Pirmana, V., Alisjahbana, A. S., Yusuf, A. A., Hoekstra, R., & Tukker, A. (2023). Input-output analysis of electric vehicle industry development in Indonesia. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 67, 285-297.
Pretorius, M. W. (2017). Wicked problems and systemic challenges: Implications for public administration. Administrative Sciences, 7(4), 37.
Ravetz, J. R. (1971). Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems. Oxford University Press.
Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155-169.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press.
Rolando, D. (2015). Strategic choice under uncertainty: Applications in emerging markets. Strategic Management Journal, 36(8), 1203-1219.
Rosenhead, J. (1992). Into the swamp: The analysis of social issues. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 43(4), 293-305.
Rosenhead, J. (1996). What's the problem? An introduction to problem structuring methods. Interfaces, 26(6), 117-131.
Rosenhead, J. (2006). Past, present and future of problem structuring methods. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57(7), 759-765.
Rosenhead, J., & Mingers, J. (Eds.). (2001). Rational Analysis for a Problematic World Revisited (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Sasongko, T. W., Ciptomulyono, U., Wirjodirdjo, B., & Prastawa, A. (2024). Identification of electric vehicle adoption and production factors based on an ecosystem perspective in Indonesia. Cogent Business & Management, 11(1), 2332497.
Schot, J., & Steinmueller, W. E. (2018). Three frames for innovation policy: R&D, systems of innovation and transformative change. Research Policy, 47(9), 1554-1567.
Schröder, A. (2024). Battery industry development in Southeast Asia: The case of Indonesia. Resources Policy, 89, 104567.
Setiawan, A. D., Zahari, T. N., Purba, F. J., Moeis, A. O., & Hidayatno, A. (2022). Electric vehicle adoption in Indonesia: Stakeholder perceptions, policy analysis, and system dynamics modeling. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 13(1), 12.
Siahaan, D., Murtiningrum, T., & Michaux, S. (2021). Multi-criteria site selection for electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Indonesia using AHP. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 46, 101259.
Simon, H. A. (1973). The structure of ill structured problems. Artificial Intelligence, 4(3-4), 181-201.
Smith, A., Stirling, A., & Berkhout, F. (2014). Social innovation for sustainability: A typology of innovations and pathways. In Handbook of Innovation and Sustainable Development (pp. 427-441). Edward Elgar.
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333-339.
Soudijn, F., & Zhang, S. X. (2016). Principal-agent relationships in technology policy implementation: Evidence from China's renewable energy sector. Technology in Society, 46, 73-85.
Sovacool, B. K., Abrahamse, W., Zhang, L., & Ren, J. (2020). Pleasure or profit? Surveying the purchasing intentions of potential electric vehicle adopters in China. Transportation Research Part A, 124, 69-81.
Suwignjo, B., Baihaqi, I., & Sutrisno, A. (2023). Consumer preference analysis for electric vehicle adoption in Indonesia: A discrete choice approach. International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 15(2), 134-152.
Syamnur, F. H., Pambudi, N. A., & Biddinika, M. K. (2019). Barriers to the adoption, acceptance and public perceptions of Electric Vehicles (EV) in Indonesia: Case studies in the city of Surakarta. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1402, 044061.
Tassopoulos, A. (2006). Innovation diffusion in electric vehicle markets: Consumer adoption patterns. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 18(3-4), 345-365.
Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14(3), 207-222.
Tritto, A. (2025). Industrial policy coordination in Indonesia's electric vehicle transition: The role of state-owned enterprises. Development Policy Review, 43(1), 123-145.
Turnheim, B., Berkhout, F., Geels, F., Hof, A., McMeekin, A., Nykvist, B., & van Vuuren, D. (2015). Evaluating sustainability transitions pathways: Bridging analytical approaches. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 17, 42-56.
Velho, R., Jorge, M., & Partidário, M. R. (2024). Soft systems methodology applications in developing countries: A systematic review. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 41(2), 156-172.
Wanvik, T. I., & Canzler, W. (2019). The governance of innovation policy: A comparative study of regional electric vehicle programs. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 32(1), 1-19.
White, L. (2009). Understanding problem structuring methods interventions. European Journal of Operational Research, 199(3), 823-833.
Wibowo, A., & Septiari, E. D. (2023). Public sentiment analysis toward electric vehicle policies in Indonesia: Social media evidence. Sustainability, 15(8), 6642.
Yu, Z. (2022). Consumer adoption of electric vehicles: An innovation diffusion theory perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 367, 132876
Downloads
Published
Citation Check
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Rachman Phasadaon Hutasuhut, Pri Hermawan, Santi Noviani
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright Notice: 1. License
International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities has CC-BY NC or an equivalent license as the optimal license for the publication, distribution, use, and reuse of scholarly work for non-commercial purpose. The non-commercial use of the article will be governed by the Creative Commons Attribution license as currently displayed on Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
Creative Commons License
2. Author’s Warranties
The author warrants that the article is original, written by stated author(s), has not been published before, contains no unlawful statements, does not infringe the rights of others, is subject to copyright that is vested exclusively in the author and free of any third party rights, and that any necessary written permissions to quote from other sources have been obtained by the author(s).
3. User Rights
International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities objective is to disseminate articles published are as free as possible. Under the Creative Commons license, this journal permits users to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work for non-commercial purposes only. Users will also need to attribute authors and this journal on distributing works in the journal.
4. Rights of Authors
Authors retain the following rights:
Copyright, and proprietary rights relating to the article, such as patent rights,
The right to use the substance of the article in future own works, including lectures and books,
The right to reproduce the article for own purposes,
The right to self-archive the article,
the right to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the article's published version (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal (International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities).
The author has a non-exclusive publishing contract with a publisher and the work is published with a more restrictive license, the author retains all the rights to publish the work elsewhere, including commercially, because she/he is not subject to the conditions of her / his own license, regardless of the type of CC license chosen.
5. Co-Authorship
If the article was jointly prepared by other authors, the signatory of this form warrants that he/she has been authorized by all co-authors to sign this agreement on their behalf, and agrees to inform his/her co-authors of the terms of this agreement.
6. Termination
This agreement can be terminated by the author or International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities upon two months’ notice where the other party has materially breached this agreement and failed to remedy such breach within a month of being given the terminating party’s notice requesting such breach to be remedied. No breach or violation of this agreement will cause this agreement or any license granted in it to terminate automatically or affect the definition of International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities.
7. Royalties
This agreement entitles the author to no royalties or other fees. To such extent as legally permissible, the author waives his or her right to collect royalties relative to the article in respect of any use of the article by This agreement can be terminated by the International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities upon two months’ notice where the other party has materially breached this agreement and failed to remedy such breach within a month of being given the terminating party’s notice requesting such breach to be remedied. No breach or violation of this agreement will cause this agreement or any license granted in it to terminate automatically or affect the definition of International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities or its sublicensee.
8. Miscellaneous
International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities will publish the article (or have it published) in the journal if the article’s editorial process is successfully completed and International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities or its sublicensee has become obligated to have the article International Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship, Social Science and Humanities may conform the article to a style of punctuation, spelling, capitalization, referencing and usage that it deems appropriate. The author acknowledges that the article may be published so that it will be publicly accessible and such access will be free of charge for the readers.
